Life cycle assessment of lithium-ion batteries and vanadium …
Since their first commercialization in the 1990s, lithium-ion battery (LIB) has gained considerable market share in energy storage, competing directly with sodium-sulfur batteries, because of its high energy density, high efficiency, long lifetime, and for being more environmentally friendly [15], [16], [17], [19]. The LIB cathode and anode can have different …